Motivation is a critical component of our mortal existence, shaping everything from daily tasks to long-term ambitions. Included in the variety of motivation types, intrinsic motivation has a powerful impact on us, providing the capacity to pursue challenging worthwhile adventures. However, the components that make up intrinsic motivation, particularly across different genders, are far from universal. Cultural values, societal expectations, and gender roles can all significantly impact the way individuals experience and express this form of motivation.
Using scholarly studies, this paper aims to explore how intrinsic motivation varies across gender in three culturally distinct countries: the United States, England, and Japan. Through examination of societal norms and gender expectations from each country, this paper aims to enlighten the interplay between gender and culture in fostering and inhibiting intrinsic motivation. Through comparison of these regions, this paper will reveal how collectivistic and individualistic societies, and gender-specific roles contribute to motivational differences between genders.
When examining differences in intrinsic motivation between men and women, the surrounding society plays a crucial role in shaping how individuals can express themselves. Although there are many different factors in developing a society’s culture, individualism, “a tendency to pursue personal goals more than group goals” (Ozeki & Travaglino, 2022), and collectivism, “the tendency to emphasize harmony within and adaptation to the group and group goals” (Ozeki & Travaglino, 2022), stand out as two distinct elements for shaping a societies culture and impact on intrinsic motivation. This difference in individualism and collectivism is evident in the United States, England, and Japan, with the United States and England being individualistic and Japan being collectivistic.
A group of researchers from the University of Essex performed a study about the difference between collectivism and individualism. They concluded that “participants assigned to the individualist group norm condition spent significantly longer on the puzzles in the personal choice condition … than those in the experimenter assignment … and in-group member assignment … conditions” (Hagger et al., 2013). In contrast, participants in the collectivist group spent more time working on the puzzle in the group and experimenter’s assignment than in the personal choice task, demonstrating the influence of collectivistic values on motivation and task engagement. The effect that individualism and collectivism have on intrinsic motivation is evident, which provides a degree of explanation to Matsumoto and his colleges finding that “only 26.6％ of the Japanese population meet the recommended levels for physical activity” (Matsumoto et al., 2021).
Collectivistic societies such as Japan provide a unique context where intrinsic motivation has a close bond to social expectations and group harmony, with distinct influences on men and women. If the groups priorities are placed above the individual then it is clear why Japanese people tend to exercise less, as that is a personal goal. This, however, affect women in Japan than in men, because the collective group’s goal for women is for smaller figures, rather than larger statures. It is this collective group goal that deters women in Japan from exercising and building their intrinsic motivation for exercise. On the other hand, Japan’s collective goal for men is less clear, providing men with the individualism needed to pursue exercise goals.
Alternatively, individualistic societies like England and the United States give space for men and women to pursue their individual goals, further expanding their intrinsic motivation. In the United States, “53.3% of adults in the United States meet aerobic [physical activity] recommendations” (Elliott et al., 2022). This stark difference between the physical activity levels of Japan and the United States propels the idea that individualism increases intrinsic motivation, while collectivistic societies drag that intrinsic motivation down.
In individualistic societies, however, there is still a divide between men and women’s intrinsic motivation for exercise. Expanding the work of Elliott and his fellow researchers, their paper concluded; that in four different types of exercises, United States men significant performed more exercise than women, with three out of the four showing distinct differences. These areas where men performed more than women were vigorous physical activity, weekly MET-minutes, and exercise self-efficacy. On the other hand, moderate physical activity showed a similar connection between men and women. Despite the United States having a culture of individualism, women and men have a distinct difference in intrinsic motivation when it comes to exercise.
Another cultural factor influencing intrinsic motivation across genders is the distinct roles traditionally assigned to men and women. “Traditional masculine ideals place high importance on striving for power and status through competition,” which can drive men toward goals associated with achievement and social status; however, these ideals also discourage emotional expression and affection for men (Allen & Smith, 2011). In contrast, traditional feminine roles position women within nurturing and expressive spaces, often emphasizing domestic responsibilities over personal or competitive goals. These expectations shape intrinsic motivation in areas like exercise, where women may feel less intrinsically motivated than men, as physical exertion or “dirty” work has been historically viewed as masculine. Consequently, cultural definitions of femininity and masculinity significantly impact how men and women pursue personal goals, as well as the level of intrinsic motivation they may feel in traditionally gendered activities.
In Japan, traditional roles persist and have resisted the change from the progressive era of feminism in the Western world. Japanese culture places men as career-focused providers and women in nurturing, family-centered roles. Takeuchi and Tsutsui observed that “historical and cultural differences are significant factors contributing to the continuation of traditional gender role attitudes and practices in some East Asian societies; that is, that men are the principal breadwinners and women are the principal managers of domestic work” (Takeuchi & Tsutsui, 2015). These roles influence intrinsic motivation by aligning men’s motivation with fields like business, science, and technology, while women are often more intrinsically motivated toward family-centered and nurturing roles. However, intrinsic motivation for Japanese women in non-traditional fields like business and mathematics persists, though often shaped by cultural expectations.
On the contrary, these traditional gender expectations in Japan can deter both men’s and women’s intrinsic motivation, as personal choice is often constrained by the collectivistic nature of society. Rather than freely choosing a career path, Japanese men and women are often encouraged or expected to fit into predefined roles, resulting in a lack of autonomy that can reduce intrinsic motivation in these areas. Takeuchi and Tsutsui (2015) observed a similar effect among highly educated women, who faced limited institutional support for balancing professional careers with societal expectations, ultimately impacting their motivation and engagement in the workforce. This lack of support often discourages women from pursuing roles in competitive fields, as the face not only societal pressure to prioritize family responsibilities but also minimal workplace accommodations for work-life balance. As a result, many women experience diminished intrinsic motivation toward their careers, particularly in fields traditionally dominated by men, as they navigate an environment that restricts their autonomy. The societal expectation that men should prioritize career success further compounds this, reinforcing a cycle where both men’s and women’s intrinsic motivation is constrained by culturally prescribed roles rather than personal aspirations.
In England, traditional roles have shifted significantly from a separatist perspective—where men and women had distinct roles—to a more cohesive approach in which both men and women actively contribute to and pursue careers and family life. This shift aligns with England’s individualistic values, allowing both men and women the autonomy to seek personal pursuits that foster intrinsic motivation. However, this progression is ongoing; as Rose and Atkin note, “despite the growing number of policy statements across [England’s] government that recognize the importance of fathers in supporting education within the home” (Rose & Atkin, 2011) and other areas of family life, gender roles continue to evolve. This gradual shift reflects both the opportunities and challenges inherent in an individualistic society—while personal choice and autonomy are encouraged, societal attitudes and workplace policies must adapt to support men and women equally in both family and professional settings. As a result, intrinsic motivation in England increasingly stems not from fulfilling present roles but from the freedom to pursue ambitions in a way that aligns with personal values and desires.
The shift in gender roles in England significantly influences the differences in intrinsic motivation for both men and women. Rather than being confined to predefined societal roles, individuals in England are given the opportunity to pursue activities that align with their competencies and passions. This level of autonomy reduces the intrinsic motivation gap between genders, allowing for both women and men to engage in pursuits they genuinely desire—be it exercise, business, and mathematics, or family life and nurturing children. Although this ideology fosters greater intrinsic motivation, it is still relatively new, meaning that traditional gender roles continue to exert influence over the autonomy available to both women and men. As a result, some individuals may adhere to traditional roles not out of personal desire, but rather because societal expectations dictate their choices.
In the United States, traditional gender roles have shifted similarly to those in England; however, various ideologies have uniquely influenced these changes. The progressive era, efforts of radical feminist groups, and identity politics have primarily focused on transforming women’s roles, resulting in a more significant push for change in women’s societal positions than in men’s roles. While this shift has shown significant improvement for women’s autonomy, men’s traditional gender roles have not varied much. As noted, “… Strain resulting from this [gender] discrepancy can cause feelings of inadequacy, anger, and low self-esteem in men… Men with high discrepancy stress may engage in unhealthy behaviors to cope with feelings of inadequacy, or to compensate for them, by behaving in hyper-masculine ways” (Sileo et al., 2023). These dynamic underscores the psychological toll that rigid gender roles can impose on me, as they grapple with societal expectations that often restrict their emotional expression and personal fulfillment. The lack of attention to men’s roles in the conversation about gender quality can perpetuate these feelings of inadequacy, making it essential to address not only women’s empowerment but also the need for redefining the expanding men’s roles within family, nurturing, and caring roles.
With this understanding of the United States' view on gender roles, intrinsic motivation for women has expanded into the domains of work, sports, and other male-dominated sectors. While there has been some pushback from men who feel the strain of gender discrepancy, this change is generally being accepted by society, further pushing women’s autonomy and intrinsic motivation. In contrast, the intrinsic motivation for men has only begun to expand in recent years, as issues related to men’s emotional health and the expression of feelings have gained prominence in current political discussions. However, until this social norm is fully adopted into mainstream society, the intrinsic motivation that men experience remains closely tied to traditional social expectations, limiting their autonomy in women areas of life like family-life and nurturing.
As demonstrated, gender roles significantly shaping the intrinsic motivation for both men and women in Japan, England, and the United State. Each of these regions exhibits distinct cultural differences that either limit or expand the intrinsic motivations and autonomy available to individuals. These variations contribute to either widening or narrowing the gender gap in intrinsic motivation, underscoring the complex interplay between societal expectations and personal fulfillment.
In summary, this paper has explored the intricate relationship between individualistic and collectivistic societies and their effects on gender differences in intrinsic motivation, as well as the influence of gender roles across Japan, England, and the United States. The analysis highlights how traditional societal norms shape the ways in which men and women experience and express intrinsic motivation, revealing significant cultural differences in autonomy and personal fulfillment. Future research could further investigate how evolving gender norms affect intrinsic motivation across various cultural contexts and explore potential interventions aimed at fostering intrinsic motivation in both genders. Ultimately, the differences in intrinsic motivation between men and women are influenced by the interplay of individualistic and collectivistic values, as well as entrenched gender roles.